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Rewards and punishments are used in different ways by different communities to maintain social order and preserve cultural values. In all cultures, parents must teach their children to avoid danger and to observe the community's moral precepts. Adults also condition each other's observance of social norms, using methods ranging from mild forms of censure, such as looking away when someone makes an inappropriate remark, to imprisoning or executing individuals for behavior considered deviant or dangerous. The caning of American teenager Michael Fay in Singapore for vandalism in 1994 brought wide media attention to cultural differences in the application of punishment. Faced with increasing violence at home, many Americans endorsed Singapore's use of corporal punishment to maintain social order. Was Fay's punishment effective? Whether he subsequently avoids vandalism is unknown, but the punishment did apparently lead to his avoidance of Singapore—which he left promptly.
The operant techniques societies use to maintain social control vary in part with the dangers and threats that confront them. The Gusii of Kenya, with a history of tribal warfare, face threats not only from outsiders but also from natural forces, including wild animals. Gusii parents tend to rely more on punishment and fear than on rewards in conditioning appropriate social behavior in their children. Caning, food deprivation, and withdrawing shelter and protection are common forms of punishment.
In contrast, the Mixtecans of Juxtlahuaca, Mexico, are a highly cohesive community, with little internal conflict, and social norms that encourage cooperation. Their social patterns appear adaptive, for the Mixtecans are dominated by the nearby Spanish Mexicans, who control the official government and many economic resources in their region. The Mixtecans do not generally impose fines or jail sentences or use physical punishment to deter aggression in either adults or children. Rather, they tend to rely on soothing persuasion. Social ostracism is the most feared punishment, and social ties within the community are very strong, so responses that reinforce these ties are effective in maintaining social order.
In the United States, fear of social ostracism or stigma was once a more powerful force in maintaining control over antisocial behavior, especially in small communities. Today, even imprisonment does not appear to be an adequate deterrent to many forms of crime, especially violent crime. Although one reason is the inconsistent application of punishment, another may be the fact that imprisonment no longer carries the intense stigma it once had, so that prison is no longer as an effective punishment.
36. The best title of this passage would be .
ACrime and Punishment
BReward and Punishment
CSocial Order
DTwo Case Studies: Gusii of Kenya and Mixtecans of Juxtlahuaca
37. According to the passage, what is a universal cultural norm in maintaining social order?
AChildren must be obedient to their parents.
BPeople must publicly complain when someone misbehaves.
CPeople should do their parts to ensure that others comply with social rules.
DPeople should publicly humiliate the wrongdoers.
38. What can be inferred from the Michael Fay case?
AMany Americans were opposed to the corporal punishment that Michael Fay received in Singapore.
BThe American media did not pay any attention to cultural differences until 1994.
CThe caning was effective because Michael Fay subsequently refrained from vandalism.
DMichael Fay left Singapore immediately after the caning punishment.
39. What would a Gusii mother from Kenya most likely do to punish her children?
ATo stop giving them pocket money.
BTo persuade them in a gentle way.
CTo verbally humiliate them.
DTo threaten to expel them from the home.
40. The word"stigma"(fourth paragraph) most probably means .
AironyBverbal abuseCpersuasionDbad reputation
